Giáo trình

# College Physics

Science and Technology

## Glossary of Key Symbols and Notation

Tác giả: OpenStaxCollege

In this glossary, key symbols and notation are briefly defined.

 Symbol Definition $any symbol ¯ size 12{ {overline {"any"`" symbol"}} } {}$ average (indicated by a bar over a symbol—e.g., $\overline{v}$ is average velocity) $° C size 12{°C} {}$ Celsius degree $° F size 12{°F} {}$ Fahrenheit degree $// size 12{"//"} {}$ parallel $⊥ size 12{ ortho } {}$ perpendicular $∝ size 12{ prop } {}$ proportional to $± size 12{ +- {}} {}$ plus or minus $0 size 12{ {} rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ zero as a subscript denotes an initial value $α size 12{α} {}$ alpha rays $α size 12{α} {}$ angular acceleration $α size 12{α} {}$ temperature coefficient(s) of resistivity $β size 12{β} {}$ beta rays $β size 12{β} {}$ sound level $β size 12{β} {}$ volume coefficient of expansion $β − size 12{β rSup { size 8{ - {}} } } {}$ electron emitted in nuclear beta decay $β + size 12{β rSup { size 8{+{}} } } {}$ positron decay $γ size 12{γ} {}$ gamma rays $γ size 12{γ} {}$ surface tension $γ = 1 / 1 − v 2 / c 2 size 12{γ= {1} slash { sqrt {1 - {v rSup { size 8{2} } } slash {c rSup { size 8{2} } } } } } {}$ a constant used in relativity $Δ size 12{Δ} {}$ change in whatever quantity follows $δ size 12{δ} {}$ uncertainty in whatever quantity follows $ΔE size 12{ΔE} {}$ change in energy between the initial and final orbits of an electron in an atom $ΔE size 12{ΔE} {}$ uncertainty in energy $Δm size 12{Δm} {}$ difference in mass between initial and final products $ΔN size 12{ΔN} {}$ number of decays that occur $Δp size 12{Δp} {}$ change in momentum $Δp size 12{Δp} {}$ uncertainty in momentum $Δ PE g size 12{Δ"PE" rSub { size 8{g} } } {}$ change in gravitational potential energy $Δθ size 12{Δθ} {}$ rotation angle $Δs size 12{Δs} {}$ distance traveled along a circular path $Δt size 12{Δt} {}$ uncertainty in time $Δt 0 size 12{Δt rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ proper time as measured by an observer at rest relative to the process $ΔV size 12{ΔV} {}$ potential difference $Δx size 12{Δx} {}$ uncertainty in position $ε 0 size 12{ε rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ permittivity of free space $η size 12{η} {}$ viscosity $θ size 12{θ} {}$ angle between the force vector and the displacement vector $θ size 12{θ} {}$ angle between two lines $θ size 12{θ} {}$ contact angle $θ size 12{θ} {}$ direction of the resultant $θ b size 12{θ rSub { size 8{b} } } {}$ Brewster's angle $θ c size 12{θ rSub { size 8{c} } } {}$ critical angle $κ size 12{κ} {}$ dielectric constant $λ size 12{λ} {}$ decay constant of a nuclide $λ size 12{λ} {}$ wavelength $λ n size 12{λ rSub { size 8{n} } } {}$ wavelength in a medium $μ 0 size 12{μ rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ permeability of free space $μ k size 12{μ rSub { size 8{k} } } {}$ coefficient of kinetic friction $μ s size 12{μ rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ coefficient of static friction $v e size 12{v rSub { size 8{e} } } {}$ electron neutrino $π + size 12{π rSup { size 8{+{}} } } {}$ positive pion $π − size 12{π rSup { size 8{ - {}} } } {}$ negative pion $π 0 size 12{π rSup { size 8{0} } } {}$ neutral pion $ρ size 12{ρ} {}$ density $ρ c size 12{ρ rSub { size 8{c} } } {}$ critical density, the density needed to just halt universal expansion $ρ fl size 12{ρ rSub { size 8{"fl"} } } {}$ fluid density $ρ ¯ obj size 12{ {overline {ρ}} rSub { size 8{"obj"} } } {}$ average density of an object $ρ / ρ w size 12{ {ρ} slash {ρ rSub { size 8{w} } } } {}$ specific gravity $τ size 12{τ} {}$ characteristic time constant for a resistance and inductance $\left(\text{RL}\right)$ or resistance and capacitance $\left(\text{RC}\right)$ circuit $τ size 12{τ} {}$ characteristic time for a resistor and capacitor $\left(\text{RC}\right)$ circuit $τ size 12{τ} {}$ torque $Υ size 12{Υ} {}$ upsilon meson $Φ size 12{Φ} {}$ magnetic flux $ϕ size 12{ϕ} {}$ phase angle $Ω size 12{ %OMEGA } {}$ ohm (unit) $ω size 12{ω} {}$ angular velocity $A size 12{A} {}$ ampere (current unit) $A size 12{A} {}$ area $A size 12{A} {}$ cross-sectional area $A size 12{A} {}$ total number of nucleons $a size 12{a} {}$ acceleration $a B size 12{a rSub { size 8{B} } } {}$ Bohr radius $a c size 12{a rSub { size 8{c} } } {}$ centripetal acceleration $a t size 12{a rSub { size 8{t} } } {}$ tangential acceleration $AC size 12{"AC"} {}$ alternating current $AM size 12{"AM"} {}$ amplitude modulation $atm size 12{"atm"} {}$ atmosphere $B size 12{B} {}$ baryon number $B size 12{B} {}$ blue quark color $B ¯ size 12{ {overline {B}} } {}$ antiblue (yellow) antiquark color $b size 12{b} {}$ quark flavor bottom or beauty $B size 12{B} {}$ bulk modulus $B size 12{B} {}$ magnetic field strength $B int size 12{B rSub { size 8{"int"} } } {}$ electron’s intrinsic magnetic field $B orb size 12{B rSub { size 8{"orb"} } } {}$ orbital magnetic field $BE size 12{"BE"} {}$ binding energy of a nucleus—it is the energy required to completely disassemble it into separate protons and neutrons $BE / A size 12{ {"BE"} slash {A} } {}$ binding energy per nucleon $Bq size 12{"Bq"} {}$ becquerel—one decay per second $C size 12{C} {}$ capacitance (amount of charge stored per volt) $C size 12{C} {}$ coulomb (a fundamental SI unit of charge) $C p size 12{C rSub { size 8{p} } } {}$ total capacitance in parallel $C s size 12{C rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ total capacitance in series $CG size 12{"CG"} {}$ center of gravity $CM size 12{"CM"} {}$ center of mass $c size 12{c} {}$ quark flavor charm $c size 12{c} {}$ specific heat $c size 12{c} {}$ speed of light $Cal size 12{"Cal"} {}$ kilocalorie $cal size 12{"cal"} {}$ calorie $COP hp size 12{ ital "COP" rSub { size 8{"hp"} } } {}$ heat pump’s coefficient of performance $COP ref size 12{ ital "COP" rSub { size 8{"ref"} } } {}$ coefficient of performance for refrigerators and air conditioners $cos θ size 12{"cos"θ} {}$ cosine $cot θ size 12{"cot"θ} {}$ cotangent $csc θ size 12{"csc"θ} {}$ cosecant $D size 12{D} {}$ diffusion constant $d size 12{d} {}$ displacement $d size 12{d} {}$ quark flavor down $dB size 12{"dB"} {}$ decibel $d i size 12{d rSub { size 8{i} } } {}$ distance of an image from the center of a lens $d o size 12{d rSub { size 8{o} } } {}$ distance of an object from the center of a lens $DC size 12{"DC"} {}$ direct current $E size 12{E} {}$ electric field strength $ε size 12{ε} {}$ emf (voltage) or Hall electromotive force $emf size 12{"emf"} {}$ electromotive force $E size 12{E} {}$ energy of a single photon $E size 12{E} {}$ nuclear reaction energy $E size 12{E} {}$ relativistic total energy $E size 12{E} {}$ total energy $E 0 size 12{E rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ ground state energy for hydrogen $E 0 size 12{E rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ rest energy $EC size 12{"EC"} {}$ electron capture $E cap size 12{E rSub { size 8{"cap"} } } {}$ energy stored in a capacitor $Eff size 12{ ital "Eff"} {}$ efficiency—the useful work output divided by the energy input $Eff C size 12{ ital "Eff" rSub { size 8{C} } } {}$ Carnot efficiency $E in size 12{E rSub { size 8{"in"} } } {}$ energy consumed (food digested in humans) $E ind size 12{E rSub { size 8{"ind"} } } {}$ energy stored in an inductor $E out size 12{E rSub { size 8{"out"} } } {}$ energy output $e size 12{e} {}$ emissivity of an object $e + size 12{e rSup { size 8{+{}} } } {}$ antielectron or positron $eV size 12{"eV"} {}$ electron volt $F size 12{F} {}$ farad (unit of capacitance, a coulomb per volt) $F size 12{F} {}$ focal point of a lens $F size 12{F} {}$ force $F size 12{F} {}$ magnitude of a force $F size 12{F} {}$ restoring force $F B size 12{F rSub { size 8{B} } } {}$ buoyant force $F c size 12{F rSub { size 8{c} } } {}$ centripetal force $F i size 12{F rSub { size 8{i} } } {}$ force input $F net size 12{F rSub { size 8{"net"} } } {}$ net force $F o size 12{F rSub { size 8{o} } } {}$ force output $FM size 12{"FM"} {}$ frequency modulation $f size 12{f} {}$ focal length $f size 12{f} {}$ frequency $f 0 size 12{f rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ resonant frequency of a resistance, inductance, and capacitance $\left(\text{RLC}\right)$ series circuit $f 0 size 12{f rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ threshold frequency for a particular material (photoelectric effect) $f 1 size 12{f rSub { size 8{1} } } {}$ fundamental $f 2 size 12{f rSub { size 8{2} } } {}$ first overtone $f 3 size 12{f rSub { size 8{3} } } {}$ second overtone $f B size 12{f rSub { size 8{B} } } {}$ beat frequency $f k size 12{f rSub { size 8{k} } } {}$ magnitude of kinetic friction $f s size 12{f rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ magnitude of static friction $G size 12{G} {}$ gravitational constant $G size 12{G} {}$ green quark color $G ¯ size 12{ {overline {G}} } {}$ antigreen (magenta) antiquark color $g size 12{g} {}$ acceleration due to gravity $g size 12{g} {}$ gluons (carrier particles for strong nuclear force) $h size 12{h} {}$ change in vertical position $h size 12{h} {}$ height above some reference point $h size 12{h} {}$ maximum height of a projectile $h size 12{h} {}$ Planck's constant $hf size 12{ ital "hf"} {}$ photon energy $h i size 12{h rSub { size 8{i} } } {}$ height of the image $h o size 12{h rSub { size 8{o} } } {}$ height of the object $I size 12{I} {}$ electric current $I size 12{I} {}$ intensity $I size 12{I} {}$ intensity of a transmitted wave $I size 12{I} {}$ moment of inertia (also called rotational inertia) $I 0 size 12{I rSub { size 8{0} } } {}$ intensity of a polarized wave before passing through a filter $I ave size 12{I rSub { size 8{"ave"} } } {}$ average intensity for a continuous sinusoidal electromagnetic wave $I rms size 12{I rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {}$ average current $J size 12{J} {}$ joule $J / Ψ size 12{ {J} slash {Ψ} } {}$ Joules/psi meson $K size 12{K} {}$ kelvin $k size 12{k} {}$ Boltzmann constant $k size 12{k} {}$ force constant of a spring $K α size 12{K rSub { size 8{α} } } {}$ x rays created when an electron falls into an $n=1$ shell vacancy from the $n=3$ shell $K β size 12{K rSub { size 8{β} } } {}$ x rays created when an electron falls into an $n=2$ shell vacancy from the $n=3$ shell $kcal size 12{"kcal"} {}$ kilocalorie $KE size 12{"KE"} {}$ translational kinetic energy $KE + PE size 12{"KE"+" PE"} {}$ mechanical energy $KE e size 12{"KE" rSub { size 8{e} } } {}$ kinetic energy of an ejected electron $KE rel size 12{"KE" rSub { size 8{"rel"} } } {}$ relativistic kinetic energy $KE rot size 12{"KE" rSub { size 8{"rot"} } } {}$ rotational kinetic energy $KE ¯ size 12{ {overline {"KE"}} } {}$ thermal energy $kg size 12{"kg"} {}$ kilogram (a fundamental SI unit of mass) $L size 12{L} {}$ angular momentum $L size 12{L} {}$ liter $L size 12{L} {}$ magnitude of angular momentum $L size 12{L} {}$ self-inductance $ℓ size 12{ℓ} {}$ angular momentum quantum number $L α size 12{L rSub { size 8{α} } } {}$ x rays created when an electron falls into an $n=2$ shell from the $n=3$ shell $L e size 12{L rSub { size 8{e} } } {}$ electron total family number $L μ size 12{L rSub { size 8{μ} } } {}$ muon family total number $L τ size 12{L rSub { size 8{τ} } } {}$ tau family total number $L f size 12{L rSub { size 8{f} } } {}$ heat of fusion $L f and L v size 12{L rSub { size 8{f} } " and"` L rSub { size 8{v} } } {}$ latent heat coefficients $L orb size 12{L rSub { size 8{"orb"} } } {}$ orbital angular momentum $L s size 12{L rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ heat of sublimation $L v size 12{L rSub { size 8{v} } } {}$ heat of vaporization $L z size 12{L rSub { size 8{z} } } {}$ z - component of the angular momentum $M size 12{M} {}$ angular magnification $M size 12{M} {}$ mutual inductance $m size 12{m} {}$ indicates metastable state $m size 12{m} {}$ magnification $m size 12{m} {}$ mass $m size 12{m} {}$ mass of an object as measured by a person at rest relative to the object $m size 12{m} {}$ meter (a fundamental SI unit of length) $m size 12{m} {}$ order of interference $m size 12{m} {}$ overall magnification (product of the individual magnifications) $m A X size 12{m left ("" lSup { size 8{A} } X right )} {}$ atomic mass of a nuclide $MA size 12{"MA"} {}$ mechanical advantage $m e size 12{m rSub { size 8{e} } } {}$ magnification of the eyepiece $m e size 12{m rSub { size 8{e} } } {}$ mass of the electron $m ℓ size 12{m rSub { size 8{ℓ} } } {}$ angular momentum projection quantum number $m n size 12{m rSub { size 8{n} } } {}$ mass of a neutron $m o size 12{m rSub { size 8{o} } } {}$ magnification of the objective lens $mol size 12{"mol"} {}$ mole $m p size 12{m rSub { size 8{p} } } {}$ mass of a proton $m s size 12{m rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ spin projection quantum number $N size 12{N} {}$ magnitude of the normal force $N size 12{N} {}$ newton $N size 12{N} {}$ normal force $N size 12{N} {}$ number of neutrons $n size 12{n} {}$ index of refraction $n size 12{n} {}$ number of free charges per unit volume $N A size 12{N rSub { size 8{A} } } {}$ Avogadro's number $N r size 12{N rSub { size 8{r} } } {}$ Reynolds number $N ⋅ m size 12{N cdot m} {}$ newton-meter (work-energy unit) $N ⋅ m size 12{N cdot m} {}$ newtons times meters (SI unit of torque) $OE size 12{"OE"} {}$ other energy $P size 12{P} {}$ power $P size 12{P} {}$ power of a lens $P size 12{P} {}$ pressure $p size 12{p} {}$ momentum $p size 12{p} {}$ momentum magnitude $p size 12{p} {}$ relativistic momentum $p tot size 12{p rSub { size 8{"tot"} } } {}$ total momentum $p tot ' size 12{ { {p}} sup { ' } rSub { size 8{`"tot"} } } {}$ total momentum some time later $P abs size 12{P rSub { size 8{"abs"} } } {}$ absolute pressure $P atm size 12{P rSub { size 8{"atm"} } } {}$ atmospheric pressure $P atm size 12{P rSub { size 8{"atm"} } } {}$ standard atmospheric pressure $PE size 12{"PE"} {}$ potential energy $PE el size 12{"PE" rSub { size 8{"el"} } } {}$ elastic potential energy $PE elec size 12{"PE" rSub { size 8{"elec"} } } {}$ electric potential energy $PE s size 12{"PE" rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ potential energy of a spring $P g size 12{P rSub { size 8{g} } } {}$ gauge pressure $P in size 12{P rSub { size 8{"in"} } } {}$ power consumption or input $P out size 12{P rSub { size 8{"out"} } } {}$ useful power output going into useful work or a desired, form of energy $Q size 12{Q} {}$ latent heat $Q size 12{Q} {}$ net heat transferred into a system $Q size 12{Q} {}$ flow rate—volume per unit time flowing past a point $+ Q size 12{+Q} {}$ positive charge $− Q size 12{ - Q} {}$ negative charge $q size 12{q} {}$ electron charge $q p size 12{q rSub { size 8{p} } } {}$ charge of a proton $q size 12{q} {}$ test charge $QF size 12{"QF"} {}$ quality factor $R size 12{R} {}$ activity, the rate of decay $R size 12{R} {}$ radius of curvature of a spherical mirror $R size 12{R} {}$ red quark color $R ¯ size 12{ {overline {R}} } {}$ antired (cyan) quark color $R size 12{R} {}$ resistance $R size 12{R} {}$ resultant or total displacement $R size 12{R} {}$ Rydberg constant $R size 12{R} {}$ universal gas constant $r size 12{r} {}$ distance from pivot point to the point where a force is applied $r size 12{r} {}$ internal resistance $r ⊥ size 12{r rSub { size 8{ ortho } } } {}$ perpendicular lever arm $r size 12{r} {}$ radius of a nucleus $r size 12{r} {}$ radius of curvature $r size 12{r} {}$ resistivity $r or rad size 12{"r or rad"} {}$ radiation dose unit $rem size 12{"rem"} {}$ roentgen equivalent man $rad size 12{"rad"} {}$ radian $RBE size 12{"RBE"} {}$ relative biological effectiveness $RC size 12{ ital "RC"} {}$ resistor and capacitor circuit $rms size 12{"rms"} {}$ root mean square $r n size 12{r rSub { size 8{n} } } {}$ radius of the nth H-atom orbit $R p size 12{R rSub { size 8{p} } } {}$ total resistance of a parallel connection $R s size 12{R rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ total resistance of a series connection $R s size 12{R rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ Schwarzschild radius $S size 12{S} {}$ entropy $S size 12{S} {}$ intrinsic spin (intrinsic angular momentum) $S size 12{S} {}$ magnitude of the intrinsic (internal) spin angular momentum $S size 12{S} {}$ shear modulus $S size 12{S} {}$ strangeness quantum number $s size 12{s} {}$ quark flavor strange $s size 12{s} {}$ second (fundamental SI unit of time) $s size 12{s} {}$ spin quantum number $s size 12{s} {}$ total displacement $sec θ size 12{"sec"θ} {}$ secant $sin θ size 12{"sin"θ} {}$ sine $s z size 12{s rSub { size 8{z} } } {}$ z-component of spin angular momentum $T size 12{T} {}$ period—time to complete one oscillation $T size 12{T} {}$ temperature $T c size 12{T rSub { size 8{c} } } {}$ critical temperature—temperature below which a material becomes a superconductor $T size 12{T} {}$ tension $T size 12{T} {}$ tesla (magnetic field strength B) $t size 12{t} {}$ quark flavor top or truth $t size 12{t} {}$ time $t 1 / 2 size 12{t rSub { size 8{ {1} slash {2} } } } {}$ half-life—the time in which half of the original nuclei decay $tan θ size 12{"tan"θ} {}$ tangent $U size 12{U} {}$ internal energy $u size 12{u} {}$ quark flavor up $u size 12{u} {}$ unified atomic mass unit $u size 12{u} {}$ velocity of an object relative to an observer $u ' size 12{ { {u}} sup { ' }} {}$ velocity relative to another observer $V size 12{V} {}$ electric potential $V size 12{V} {}$ terminal voltage $V size 12{V} {}$ volt (unit) $V size 12{V} {}$ volume $v size 12{v} {}$ relative velocity between two observers $v size 12{v} {}$ speed of light in a material $v size 12{v} {}$ velocity $v ¯ size 12{ {overline {v}} } {}$ average fluid velocity $V B − V A size 12{V rSub { size 8{B} } - V rSub { size 8{A} } } {}$ change in potential $v d size 12{v rSub { size 8{d} } } {}$ drift velocity $V p size 12{V rSub { size 8{p} } } {}$ transformer input voltage $V rms size 12{V rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {}$ rms voltage $V s size 12{V rSub { size 8{s} } } {}$ transformer output voltage $v tot size 12{v rSub { size 8{"tot"} } } {}$ total velocity $v w size 12{v rSub { size 8{w} } } {}$ propagation speed of sound or other wave $v w size 12{v rSub { size 8{w} } } {}$ wave velocity $W size 12{W} {}$ work $W size 12{W} {}$ net work done by a system $W size 12{W} {}$ watt $w size 12{w} {}$ weight $w fl size 12{w rSub { size 8{"fl"} } } {}$ weight of the fluid displaced by an object $W c size 12{W rSub { size 8{c} } } {}$ total work done by all conservative forces $W nc size 12{W rSub { size 8{"nc"} } } {}$ total work done by all nonconservative forces $W out size 12{W rSub { size 8{"out"} } } {}$ useful work output $X size 12{X} {}$ amplitude $X size 12{X} {}$ symbol for an element $Z A X N size 12{"" lSub { size 8{Z} } lSup { size 8{A} } X rSub { size 8{N} } } {}$ notation for a particular nuclide $x size 12{x} {}$ deformation or displacement from equilibrium $x size 12{x} {}$ displacement of a spring from its undeformed position $x size 12{x} {}$ horizontal axis $X C size 12{X rSub { size 8{C} } } {}$ capacitive reactance $X L size 12{X rSub { size 8{L} } } {}$ inductive reactance $x rms size 12{x rSub { size 8{"rms"} } } {}$ root mean square diffusion distance $y size 12{y} {}$ vertical axis $Y size 12{Y} {}$ elastic modulus or Young's modulus $Z size 12{Z} {}$ atomic number (number of protons in a nucleus) $Z size 12{Z} {}$ impedance